 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
The following is a word by word reproduction of the manuscript site report made by T.C.M. Brewster containing those sections relating to the discovery of the Iron Age chariot grave at Garton Slack in 1971. www.yorkshirehistory.com has been granted full permission to reproduce this work, which exists in manuscript format at the East Riding Archaeological Research Trust. An identical copy in micro-fiche format is housed with the British Museum, which was originally commissioned by the National Monuments Records Office. This author has had the opportunity, thanks to Dr. Ian Stead, to compare both versions, and it can be said with no fear of contradiction, that they are identical, right down to the hand made corrections made by Brewster himself. The re-typing allowed for in-depth examination of the report, which in turn required, in some aspects, further examination. These re-examinations will be presented after the conclusion of the report, so as not to interrupt the flow of Brewster’s original words. Re-appraisal of some of Brewster’s original findings were not long coming once the report had been published in 1980 as has already been seen in Section 2 of the main article. This is a rare insight into archaeological technique and interpretation of the 1970’s, and in particular to those things as produced by T.C.M. Brewster, of whom it has been suggested that his methods and ideas were and are considered by some/many to be somewhat less than orthodox. This report remains, however controversial, to be one of Tony Brewster’s enduring legacies to the archaeology of East Yorkshire, and for that, if nothing else, he must be esteemed. In order to whet the appetite of those who might read through this unique presentation, here will be three of Tony Brewster’s own photographs taken of the Garton Slack chariot grave in June 1971. They will hopefully be here reproduced by kind permission of the National Monuments Record, Swindon, to whom got my sincere thanks, and to Laura Butler especially, provided some last minute glitches over copyright can be resolved. These representations of Brewster’s photographs are but photocopies, the funds of www.yorkshirehistory.com do not stretch to paying large reproduction fees sadly. They are however clear enough to see all necessary detail.
THE EXCAVATION OF GARTON & WETWANG SLACKS By T.C.M. Brewster Published by THE EAST RIDING ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH COMMITTEE Wintringham, Malton, Yorks. 1980 [Commencing at page 379 - RGH] Garton Slack 11 This site lay to the immediate west of Garton Slack 10, in fact the two grids were locked together and therefore the area from site 8 to 11 was excavated without a break in the grid. The area of site 11 covered the chariot complex and allied and non-allied structures as well. To the south of this site, running roughly east to west, were Main Ditches 1 and 2. linked with Main Ditch 1 was a late medieval boundary ditch, which ran across the site from north to south, west of the chariot complex. Due north of the mortuary house there was, in two instances, evidence of a circular stain in the gravel associated with pits. The Chariot Complex [p. 380] It is suggested the mortuary house, the chariot grave and the probably rectangular barrow were an integral part of the chariot complex. The mortuary house being associated with the funerary ritual and the rectangular barrow may have contained a burial, now ploughed away, which was probably allied to the chariot grave. The other pits and structures, including the large pit which contained the bone combs and sliders, may be associated with the complex. It is considered likely the mortuary house was linked with the funerary ritual of the chariot complex and probably housed the body during the funebrial [sic; funereal] feast and ritual prior to burial in the chariot barrow’s grave this facet of possible Iron Age customs had been discussed earlier in the report. ……….. The Chariot Grave Barrow [p. 381] Fig. 239, 242, 240 & Plate 71 The chariot and charioteer were buried in a 3 ft. deep, roughly trapezoidal grave located in a square ditched enclosure. To the immediate south lay Main Ditch 1, to the north-west was the mortuary house and to the north-east lay the structure designated Barrow 1. Barrow Ditches The barrow ditches formed a rough rectangle 40 ft. long north to south, and 38 ft. wide. At the southern end the barrow ditch was cut into the upper fill of the Main Ditch 1 to the chalk chips and gravel sub-soil beneath. Obviously the larger ditch predates the chariot barrow and had become silted up to the 1971 bulldoze scraped level before the barrow ditch was dug. On average the ditch in its remaining form (though it might have been wider before plough/erosion etc.) was 4 ft. 6 ins wide. The west ditch was on average 1 ft. 8 ins. Deep, the northern side 1 ft. 6 ins. And the eastern ditch was circa 13 ins. The ditch infilling on the eastern side, fig 242, appears to have been brought about by natural silting. Whereas, the western ditch section, fig. 242, shows clearly the cutting across the natural silted layers for the insertion of the infant burial. On the northern side, the ditch profile shows a cutting through the primary silting before the final silting of the ditch. During excavation it was noticed the top lines of the silting had always commenced from the interior of the barrow; therefore the slip was from the barrow mound. It would appear the barrow mound had consisted of soil with a 60% to 90% chalk chips and gravel content, probably outcast from the ditches. The Grave Pit Figs. 239, 240 & Plate 71 The grave in plan was an asymmetrical trapezoid cut into the natural with its axis aligned north-south. It had a maximum length of 12 ft. 6 ins. At the top of the grave and the southern end had a maximum width 10 ft. 6 ins. The narrow, northern, end of the grave was 6 ft. 6 ins. at its greatest width. The sides were fairly uniform, the average incline was circa 70° with a rounding off where the sides joined the grave bottom, which on the whole was fairly horizontal, inclining a total of 4 ins. from the southern end to the northern side. The slope on the southern side was nearly vertical in places. For the contours and sections see fig. 240 and 242. On average the grave was 2 ft. 9 ins. in depth in its surviving form, allowing for chemical, plough and modern scraper erosion it must have been circa 3 ft. 56 ins. deep when dug. The Excavation of the Grave Once the shape of the grave became clearly apparent it was decided to section it to the level of the burial and then complete the sectioning as the grave contents were removed at the end of the excavation. It was decided to section the grave down its north-south axis only, a double section across the axis would have been to complicated to excavate. The grave was trowel pared down on the western side only to the level of the tyres and harness mounts and part of the skeleton and then the soil profile was drawn by means of vertical cords at 6 ins. intervals and held taut by means of small flat lead fish-weights. A horizontal control line of fine nylon was stretched along the soil section which was drawn by measuring the position of section features from the various horizontal and vertical controls. This was normal practice on all the sites. Once the western side was excavated, the structures exposed were covered over by polythene sheeting for protection and the eastern side was excavated to the level of the chariot tyre and the burial. A narrow baulk of grave fill was left between the western excavated portion and the eastern workings. As the trowelling lowered the levels on the eastern side the baulk was carefully removed. This technique had the effect of protecting the western, excavated portion of the grave from damage during the final clearing and cleaning of the contents of the grave. During the entire period of excavation of the grave, a heavy duty rigid, wooden canopy was used to protect the contents. The Infill of the Grave Fig. 242 [p. 384] In the zone around and above the burial the fill was much looser and much more moist than the rest of the grave; its dividing line to north was the vertical lense** [sic] N and to the south the grave wall. Whereas, in this southern section there were only 2 chalk blocks, quite a few, which do not appear in fig. 242, occurred at the northern end of the grave pit. There are strong indications that the last 4 ins. of the grave bottom had been lined originally with circa 4 in. thick inverted turves [sic], placed with the grass side downwards. Dark specks of charcoal-like material existed on the bottom of the grave and rested on the natural; these deposits are recorded in the empty profiles. This theory is further strengthened by the fact that both pieces of the broken pole-shaft had been laid on a surface of soft soil, otherwise they could not have left an indentation of the shaft on the bottom; these depressions later filled with soft soil as the wood decayed. Such shaft impressions could not have occurred on the hard natural, or by the soil settling around the decaying wood. Also the bottom layer of the grave was of a totally different nature to the rest of the grave fill. The spokes of both wheels also left clear imprints on the bottom lining of the grave and like the pole shaft imprints and stains were raised off the bottom. See fig. 241. it is further suggested the stone free soil stains that survive were created by soil gradually working into the interstices of the wood as it decayed gradually and became soft. The decaying of the wood prevented entry of pebbles by acting as a filter and only permitted fine soil particles to settle, the wood stains were stone free. The moist and loose conditions of the grave packing above the body and tyres may be due to the collapse of some canopy-like structure originally placed over the body. This was [,] in the early days of the excavation [,] thought to be a canopy, and is mentioned in an earlier report. This looseness and moistness is now attributed to the rotting and settling of the body and the wooden remains of the dismantled coachwork and not to any structures placed as a canopy over the body at the time of burial. This settling is clearly shown in the profile, fig. 242. The majority of lenses in the middle and lower grave fill have chalk and flint chips and gravel content lower than 50%, with the exception of lenses F, P, Y, and T. This would appear to indicate the material placed in the grave was top soil and not material from the excavation of the ditches. 30% gravel to soil is about the average content of non-ploughed soil in the area today. The apparent turf soil on the bottom of the grave has the same content as the majority of the lower packing. The vertical lense ** N was in fact part of a roughly circular pit of ancient origin. Possibly it was a break-in attempt to rob the grave in the manner of robberies in the Bronze Age barrows of Denmark, where a narrow hole was cut through the mound above to the coffin below. The tip lines of the infilling of the grave are clearly discernable in the section, fig. 242. The Grave Contents Fig. 241 Plates 72, 73 & 74 As the western section of the grave was pared down by trowelling and small brushes the edge of one iron tyre emerged, first as an iron oxide stain then the solid rusted iron. For the first time, under modern conditions, a chariot burial was exposed with all its trappings. Even the soil stains and imprints of the spokes of the wheels and the felloes and the pole shaft survived in tact. Between and on top of the 2 iron tyres was the skeleton of the charioteer, a man about 30 years of age with the left leg shorter than the right. Beside him on the west side were the remains of his whip. Most wood had vanished without trace, but some of the possibly cherry-wood handle, impregnated and preserved by the copper sulphate from the sheet bronze cover-plates of the pommel had survived. On the charioteer’s stomach and chest had been placed, at burial, portions of a pig’s head, split into two, with the interior parts uppermost, as food for the afterlife. Resting upon his left knee, propped upright by a small block of flint, was an intact 3 link bridle-bit, frozen by corrosion in its original position at burial. Another bit, apparently deliberately broken into 2 pieces by cutting with a cold chisel, or similar blade; probably a symbolic ‘killing’ of the equipment for burial, lay on the lower rib cage. The chariot had been dismantled for burial, the pole-shaft broken into 2 parts, not only to fit into the grave, but probably broken deliberately as part of the ritual associated with the burial. The remains of the wheels were located at the southern end of the grave and laid on the eastern and western sides, the body had been placed upon the top of them in a flexed position with the head facing east. There was no sign whatsoever of the body-work, or chassis of the chariot, although fragments of bronze edging, which had been originally mounted on wood, survived above the wheels and the skeleton in the damper looser fill. It is doubtful if any traces of coachwork could have survived above the chariot in the loose and moist soil. scattered around the wheels and skeleton, chiefly on the western side and on the same level as the tyres, were 2 bronze terrets, a whip pommel and ferrules, also a slip buckle of the ponies harness. Three terrets and a slip buckle lay beneath the wheels at a slightly lower level but there were no traces of a yoke. The broader and thicker end of the pole shaft lay along the axis of the grave; another piece, consisting of the narrower end, lay along the southern edge of the grave with an iron pole-cap on the end. This had been secured by 2 nails driven into the pole and a wooden, or metal pin formerly slotted through the pole-cap slot and pole. [For further discussion regarding the presence or lack of such of a yoke and axle, see Section 2, main article – RGH] The Chariot’s Burial Sequences Fig. 241 The chariot had been buried, minus its 2 ponies and was dismantled prior to burial. Whereas the wheels, pole-shaft and some harness fittings survived complete, or as stains, the chassis, coachwork and possibly the yoke did not survive as wood traces. It is possible, by inference, deduction and surviving metal fittings to ascertain whether or not, they did in fact exist. There is evidence to suggest that the coach-work, at least, in a dismantled form was placed above the body. This evidence is in the form of curved sheet bronze edging with small bronze rivets and traces of wood still attached, located in the loose and moist grave soil above the eastern and western wheels. Fig. 242. This bronze sheeting probably came from the edges of the side coach-work. Some small pieces of decayed thin iron sheeting with small nails and wood traces came from the same zone, over and around the skeleton. Bearing in mind these fragments may have come from some other objects in the grave, it is still considered the evidence indicates some of the coach-work formerly existed at this level in the tomb. Of the chassis no evidence of its existence came to light during the excavation. It was noticed, probably due to the decaying of the body affecting the chemistry of the soil, chiefly in the centre and the area on the eastern side of the west wheel, nearly all the traces of wood had disappeared, including the chassis end of the pole shaft. It is suggested the wooden chassis and axle beam had been placed in the grave over the wheels and decayed; vanishing without trace. Likewise the wooden parts of the yoke, the terrets still being in position at burial, may have suffered a similar fate. Fig. 241, 242. It would appear the sequence of burial of the chariot was as follows: the terrets and other rings and the wheels, were placed on the bottom of the grave on a layer of inverted turf with the pole-shaft; the front being broken off and placed at the same level across the southern end of the grave with the pole cap of iron still fastened to it, because it was too long. Following this, the charioteer’s body was placed upon the wheels, they then tilted downwards towards each other with the weight, in which position they remained until excavated. His whip was placed behind him to the west and on top of the tyre and a complete bridle-bit was propped against his left knee. The 2 portions of a split pig’s head were laid on the body. On top of the body and wheels was probably placed the dismantled coach-work and the grave then filled in. If the yoke had been placed in the grave it would probably have been still attached to the terrets. The Harness and Chariot Fittings Figs. 245, 246, 248, 250 and 251 Bridle bits Fig. 249 Two linked, wrought iron, bridle-bits occurred with the burial, one was intact and the other deliberately broken i8nto 2 pieces; probably by a cold chisel; both examples were of identical construction. They consisted of a 3 link mouth piece with the rein-rings attached to the end of the 2 outer links. Now entirely rigid, the rein-rings might have been originally free to rotate. The mouth piece’s central link is clasped round its narrow curved waist by an iron band hammered round it whilst red-hot. It is obvious the bits, as many other 3 linked Iron Age ones were, had been so designed to obtain maximum control under difficult conditions. These bits can be best described as fierce, or cruel bits, whatever one’s approach to the control of horses is. Both bits are a fine example of the high standards attained in the local Iron Age by its blacksmiths. The Yoke, Terrets and Slip Buckles Figs. 251B, 250 & 251 That there were 5 terrets in the Garton Slack chariot grave is without doubt, but whether they were mounted on a wooden yoke, or not, can only be presumed but not proven by excavation. There is every indication they were in fact mounted on a belt or other solid material. Around the iron bar of each terret were dark stain traces of some material, probably leather, extending on the average, an inch from the iron bar of each one. Plate 75. In addition, all the terrets, except the largest, were in line strung along in a shallow curve on the grave bottom. This suggests each terret was fastened to a solid curved object, a yoke is strongly indicated by the short leather strap unions on each terret and their alignment to each other. The fifth terret was in the centre between the 2 pairs, but was not central, or on the same alignment. One problem arising from the suggestion that the terrets were mounted on a one piece yoke is the distance apart, in the centre, of the 2 groups of terrets; only 9½ to 10 ins; this distance it would appear does not allow sufficient width between the 2 terret groups for the pole shaft and half the width of each pony. It may well be the 2 pairs of terrets were not central to the axis of each pony on the yoke and were offset towards the pole, fig. 251B, this would explain why they were close together. The function of the fifth and largest terret is not known. It must have been originally attached to the centre of the coachwork in some way; possibly on a terret-bar across the front of the chariot. It could have been still attached to the front of the coachwork, had it existed in the grave, the terret-bar of the inverted coachwork would have rested on the bottom of the grave, the rest of the coachwork traces were above the body and the wheels. The yoke must have been attached to each horse by a body girth strap and a broad chest band. In addition to the four terrets being in line there was one slip-buckle at each end of the line of the presumed position of the yoke. They may have been attached to the end of the yoke by a fairly long leather strap; this could have been folded for they are not the same equal distance away from the outer terrets. The fact both are at either end of the suggested yoke complex may indicate their association with it. Furthermore, they must have been mounted on something flexible, possibly a leather strap, otherwise the one resting on the charioteer’s tibia would have dislodged the bone as the grave-earth settled and the flesh decayed. They could also have been an equal distance apart from the outer terrets if they had been mounted on the solid wooden part of the yoke. It is now considered they are too weak to be girth buckles or strap unions and were probably part of the head gear of the ponies. The Terrets Fig. 250 Four of the terrets were fairly uniform in size, the fifth, the roughly central one, was larger. All originally had a straight iron bar at the bottom and a stud of coral, or imitation coral, secured by a bronze pin in a cup shaped hollow at the top. The end ones of the four at the northern side had lost its stud. An interesting feature of all the five D-shaped terrets was the bronze casting containing the claws of the iron bar which curved round inside the terret. These could have been driven into each bronze terret loop with a hammer, but it is known the bronze portions of each one were cast around the curved claws on the iron bottom bar of each terret. This casting of the bronze round the iron claws would clasp them extremely tightly and the metal cooled. The terret’s iron bar would be subject to a considerable strain from the reins when in use and would have to be attached tightly to it. A bronze bar would have been too weak. The method of securing them to the bronze casting would provide the necessary strength of attachment required. Such a method of moulding bronze casting round iron was used to secure the handle ferrules and decorated mountings of the iron mirror excavated at Garton Slack in 1970. Terret 1 This terret, (8) 23/6/71 was located in the chariot grave between the right foot of the skeleton and the outer surface of the tyre of the west wheel. It was laid on its side with the iron loop on the north-east side. More than an inch of a dark staining extended north-eastwards from, and was the width of, the iron bar. This stain had the appearance of old dark leather, which it may have been originally. When excavated the bronze varied in colour from dark olive to light green with small patches of golden bronze showing through in the areas not covered by patina, or the expansion of the iron claw which had broken through the bronze in one place. Surmounting the terret in a small cup-shaped socket were 2 V-shaped groves which joined together under the socket. A small bronze boss was located between the grooves on either side of the terret. Beneath the upper loop, and below the coral mounting, was the hammered over end of a bronze securing pin. A raised moulding with a groove encircled the bottom of each bronze loop on the terret where it joined the iron portion. Terret 2 Terret 2 (7) 23/6/71, lay within the west tyre and 8 ins. south-east of the nave hoop on the bottom of the grave, aligned in the same direction as Terret 1, and was the second of the series which belonged to a string of four. It may well have come from the same mould as the first one, but was in a better condition. When excavated the dull olive green patina stood out from the coral decoration and the dark staining, which as mentioned before, was originally probably a leather strap extending outwards from the iron loop. This loop, like that of Terret 1, continued into the bronze casting, but, in this instance, had only burst through slightly, in one place. The bronze V pattern grooves, consisting of small (cup-shaped) hollows joined together in a string, enclosing the mount which contained a faded coral stud. This was secured by a bronze rivet that passed through the stud before penetrating a small hole in the underside of the top of the terret’s loop. On both sides of the centre of the upper part of the terret, at the side of the stud mounting, were 2 raised bronze bosses. Terret 3 This terret, (7) 26.6.71 was the third in the string which must have been attached to a wooden yoke and was slightly larger than the previous two, but was exactly of the same type. When excavated the bronze had a dark to light mottled green appearance with patches of golden metal showing through. Near the top of the bronze loop, just below the stud mount were traces of dark iron oxide stains. The cup-shaped hollow held a light dull pink, coral coloured stud secured by a bronze pin. This stud was chipped, faded and cracked and may well have been imitation coral. Like the other 2 examples an inch long dark stain extended from the base of the terret. Terret 4 Terret 4, (8) 26.6.71, was the last of the 4 terrets in line and was located beneath the pommel of the whip on the bottom of the grave. It was in poor condition compared with the previous example, (7) 23.6.71 [sic] but was probably from the same mould. The iron portion of the terret was in poor condition and part of the iron claw within the bronze casting had broken through and slightly split the side. In addition, the entire coral, or imitation coral stud and its rivet had disappeared. When excavated the iron part of the base of the terret was on the south-west side. Terret 5 Unlike the other terrets this one, (6) 26.6.71, was larger than the other four and was located off-centre between terrets 2 and 3, but was of the same identical type of D-shaped bronze terret as the others with an iron strap bar to secure it to the yoke. It was in good condition, but the coral mount was chipped and cracked. When excavated the patina was an even olive green. In one place, near the top of one bronze loop, there is a slight break through of the iron claw. The bronze boss on the side of the cup-shaped mount at the top of the terret showed signs of rubbing and the terret as a whole appears to be more worn than the other four. It was laid on the grave bottom and the iron bar faced south-west. Slip Buckles or Strap Unions As has already been mentioned the 2 bronze slip buckles were located at either end of the presumed position of the yoke with the bronze terrets mounted on it. One was resting on the back of the left tibia of the charioteer’s skeleton, in which position it could not have been if it had been attached to the end of a fairly heavy wooden yoke. The pressure of the yoke would have dislodged the bone. That it was fastened to the yoke by a leather strap is possible, its position and that of the other slip buckle suggest it might have been associated with the terret and yoke complex. It is possible the 2 slip buckles were attached to each end of the yoke by a leather strap or their function was entirely decorative, which is unlikely, or they were used to attach the belly band to the yoke, which is improbable. This problem is discussed in detail on the section on the chariot and its harness and fittings. The 2 bronze fittings have been designated slip buckles and it is considered this is what they were, irrespective of which part of the chariot they were attached to, be it face harness, or belly bands of the horses or the yoke; the former is the most likely as they would be too weak for girth buckles. Each buckle was cast in bronze from the same mould in one piece, with the exception of 6 studs of dissimilar metal inserted through holes in the casting. The studs protruded 3mm above the upper surface of the buckle and were filed level with the surface of the underside of the plate. Each stud was probably made of copper and was redder than the surrounding bronze which was yellow where the patina did not cover it. On excavation the buckles had a very beautiful bright patina with patches of uncorroded, bright yellow, bronze. Each stud was surmounted by bright dull brown mounts of enamel, or paste. The buckles were of a single casting which consisted of 3 asymmetrical, roughly circular plates with raised edges round the plate and perforations, and 2 fairly large, off centre, round perforations joined to the plates by two strap bars. These strap bars had two dish-shaped plates at either end of each one with two counter-sunk holes in the centre. On the underside the surface was perfectly flat and generally not corroded. Buckle 1, (10) 23.6.71 was resting on the charioteer’s left tibia near the south-west and of the presumed yoke and buckle 2, (10) 26.1.71 came from the other end, a short distance away from Terret 4. Miscellaneous Iron Rings, Fig. 248 Two iron rings came to light during the excavation of the grave, one was small, only 3.7cm in diameter with a bar thickness of 9mm Fig 248. this ring which may well be a harness loop, (1) 17.6.71 came from the zone of moist and loose soil just above the west tyre, but within the area of its circumference. Ring 2, (6) 23.6.71 was found lying partly on the left shoulder blade of the charioteer and touching the tyre, Plate 75. its diameter was 5.6cm and the bar thickness 9mm. The function of these 2 rings is far from clear, but both are doubtless part of the harness, or chariot fittings. The Wheels Fig. 241 Plates 72, 73 & 74 One of the most remarkable features of the chariot grave was the survival of stain traces of the wooden pole shaft, spokes, felloes and hub. Carbonised wood only occurred inside the tyres and one of the bronze nave rings. Actual wood survived inside the thin piece of bronze sheeting, thought to have come from the coachwork of the chariot, and there were more substantial remains from the pommel of the whip. Due to the survival of virtually the whole of the wheels in the form of wood stains; akin to the wood traces of the Sutton Hoo ship burial; and the intact iron tyres, it is possible to obtain a fairly clear picture of the dimensions and method of construction of the wheels. The Tyres Figs. 245 & 246 Of the 2 wheels the eastern one was virtually new, or had been fitted with a new tyre shortly before the burial and was complete with 3 bronze nave rings. The west tyre was very much thinner and worn and one of the bronze nave rings had been replaced with a poor quality iron hoop. This indicates the wheel had been subject to much use prior to burial, possibly over many years. This may be the case with the chariot as a whole and the new tyre on the eastern wheels may have been a replacement on an older wheel; certainly the bronze nave rings on this wheel had been scraped and dented while in use. Eastern Wheel Fig. 241 & 245 Plate 73 & 74 The Tyre This tyre was nearly new and no sign of wear was evident. The slight irregular surface was due to rusting of the metal and the coagulated small chalk and flint pebbles that had stuck to the tyre by the cementing effect of iron oxide. On the inside of the tyre were traces of carbonised wood and wood traces from the felloe; the latter being preserved by the iron oxide of the rusting tyre. The average diameter of the tyre was 2 ft. 10½ ins., but in one part, where the joining overlapped the surface was slightly flat and although the rest of the tyre was perfectly curved this section, circa 9½ ins. in length, was not. Weighing 4.75 kilos the tyre was 2 ft. 10½ ins. in diameter; 0.88 metres and 110/12 ins wide; 4.65 cms. It was ⅓ in. thick 0.8 cms. On all but the thick part where the welding joint was; here it was circa ½ in. thick; 1.25 cms. The tyre was fairly flat in section and only slightly curved. The X-rays of the tyre clearly show the overlapping joint, circa 9⅓ ins. long at the rim. At one end of this joint, where the rim narrowed, the tyre was cracked slightly, but this was hidden at the time of excavation by the rusting of the metal in the grave, but the fault must have been apparent when the wheel was in use. This crack and the faulty flat part of the rim might suggest the deliberate burial of a slightly faulty wheel and another much worn and repaired one to avoid the burial of 2 perfect wheels; unless of course these faults were acceptable at the time, which is doubtful. In addition to the tyres welding joint the X-ray photographs showed an inch wide, denser part of the tyre, where possibly a joint had been made of 2 shorter lengths of the metal strip during the preparation of the tyre hoop, prior to the joining process. Two such joints were noticeable on the X-ray photographs of the west tyre. The Felloe Fig. 241 Plates 73 & 74 Sufficient remained of the wood, in the form of staining, to clearly define the felloe, the spokes and to a certain extent the hub. Parts of the felloe remained on the tyre in the form of a thin layer of carbonised wood, or wood remains surviving in the form of an oxide layer retaining traces of wood. Unfortunately it was not possible to report on which wood it was, due to insufficient remaining. The carbonising of the felloe wood in contact with the tyre indicates the tyre was heat shrunk onto the wheel. It is estimated from the wood stains remaining, the felloe was 2 ins. wide across the tyre and 2 ins. thick. There was no evidence at all for a felloe joint of metal, or any other material, and the iron tyres could not be nailed to the felloe through the tyre as no holes for them exist. It is probable the felloe consisted of 3 or 4 pieces of wood joined together and held rigidly in place by the contraction of the hot tyres, which caused the felloe to press against the spokes, which in turn were supported by the wooden nave, or hub. This method of construction of a felloe is the normal modern practice. When the contracting tyre method of constructing wheels is used the felloe must consist of 3 or more pieces, to allow the tyres to cool and contract the felloe onto the spokes and hub, thereby creating a tightly locked wheel. A single piece felloe could not contract and would probably crack and would not tighten the spokes and lock the wheel rigidly together. Therefore, a wheel constructed of a single felloe would have the tyre nailed into the felloe and would not be very rigid. A wheel constructed of a felloe or several pieces of wood and a contracting iron tyre shrunk round and on it would be very strong. It would only be affected by extremely dry weather conditions if seasoned wood was used. This shrinking could be cured as was done with farm wagons in former times, by standing the wheels in a stream or pond and moving the vehicle forward at intervals. A pleasant and non-arduous pastime for many in the past on a hot summer’s day as exemplified by Constable’s oil painting, “The Hay Wain”. This method must have been understood during the Iron Age and may have been practiced by chariot drivers under similar circumstances. The Spokes Fig. 241 Plates 72, 73, & 74 One of the facets of the chariot grave during excavation was the appearance of clearly defined stain, soil remains and imprints in the soft bottom soil, of the wooden spokes of the Iron Age chariot’s wheels in a grave. In the case of the Garton Slack chariot the number of spokes per wheel was 12. these may have been oval in section and were certainly not more than an inch un thickness where they joined the felloe and hub. A greater thickness in the circumference of the hub was not possible. The total length of each spoke is estimated to be 12 ins. from hub to felloe. Part, or nearly complete runs of all the spokes survived as stains, or imprints and stains. Hub Fig. 241 Plates 72, 73, & 74 The hub of the eastern wheel survived fairly intact as a column of faintly stained gravel supporting a nave-ring of bronze. 5½ ins. in diameter, 13.9 cms. Careful measurements of the surviving column indicated that it was not less than 7 ins. in length; 17.7 cms. Probably 8 ins.; 20.2 cms., originally before decay and some compression of the soil. the lower nave-ring, or hoop was set back approximately 1 in. from the end of the hub, and the top hoop was circa 5 ins., from the bottom when excavated. It would appear the hub was 5½ ins. 13.2 cms. In diameter where the nave rings bound it and probably 8 ins. in length, 20.2 cms. No evidence of the axle pole was apparent in the east wheel’s hub, but existed in the hub of the west wheel. Nave Hoops or Rings The nave-hoops from the east wheel were of bronze, but both had the bright golden appearance of gilding in the grater part of the area on the outside of the metal, Plate 75. This colour was not the same as the uncorroded bronze that occurred on the terrets and slip buckles, but a more brilliant golden appearance like burnished gold. It was reported by Mr. T. Oddy ** of the British Museum Laboratory the metal was not gilded. What this surface was it is not possible to say; possibly some chemical reaction on the metal in the soil brought it about. Certainly the colour remained on the surface of the upper nave ring after excavation, whilst it was exposed on the grave before removal. All the bronze nave-hoops were constructed of bronze sheeting not more than 3mm in thickness. It is not known how the hoops were made, but they were probably cast in a mould, certainly there is no visible joint on any of them and no hammer marks are visible. There is no doubt they are a fine example of the bronzesmith’s [sic] art. It must be borne in mind they have the appearance of bring shaped by a hand operated machine used at the present time by sheet metal workers called a rymer. All 3 bronze nave-hoops had been dented prior to burial, one of them severely; the latter showing obvious signs of a severe passing blow, probably caused by hitting an obstruction while the chariot was being driven. Maybe the ponies were startled and bolted causing the damage, or the chariot had hit another during a race, or competition such as portrayed in the accounts of chariots presented by the Irish legends. One bronze nave-hoop, the lower one on the west wheel, had on its interior surface, long thin strips of carbonised, not decayed, wood. This would appear to indicate the nave-hoops were heat shrunk onto the wooden hub. Such a technique would certainly provide the grip to enable the nave-hoops to adhere to the hub and provide the strength to prevent it splitting. Traces of wood were also found sticking to the inside of the bottom nave hoop of the east wheel. It was not possible to identify the wood which had survived, through it being partly scorched by the heat of the nave-hoop and the presence of copper sulphate from the decaying bronze. [rymer – see after the conclusion of the report, also for further insight into Brewster’s interpretation of this passage concerning metal working. RGH] East Wheel, Nave Hoops 1 and 2, fig. 247 Nave-hoop 1 (3) 26/6/71, was found on the bottom of the grave beneath the east wheel of the dismantled chariot. It was 5½ ins. in diameter; 14.9cms. and 1.7cms in width and 6mm. in depth. For a distance on the east side of 1½ ins., 3.8cms. the hoop had been dented and scraped, but had not broken. Inside of the hoop there were remains of very thin pieces of wood, probably preserved by the copper sulphate of the metal. The surface of the outside of the hoop was covered, in patches, with what appeared to be brilliant gilding. Nave hoop 2, (2) 25/6/71, was still standing on the remains of the hub in the form of a column of stained soil above the wheel, Fig. 25B. It was inclining at approximately the same angle as the tyre and no axle hole had survived in the remains of the hub wood. The side of the hoop had been dealt a heavy passing blow which had scratched the metal, distorted and dented and split it open. The irregular split was between 3 and 4mm. wide. The diameter varied from 5⅓ins; 13.7cms. to 5½ ins; 13.9cms. obviously this variation is due to the damage suffered in antiquity. It would appear the diameter was originally 5⅓ ins; 13.7cms. before springing apart, due to the blow, making this hoop lightly smaller than the lower one of the two, on the eastern wheel. On average the width was 1.5cms. variations being caused by distortion. West Wheel Fig. 241 Plates 72, 73, & 74 Parts of the hub, felloe and spokes survived of the chariot’s western wheel. The best surviving wood traces were on the east side of the grave. This was probably due to the chemical action of the decaying body liquids which tended to collect to the west of the east wheel owing to the grave contours including a little westwards in that area. Even so, quite a run of the felloe, hub, and part of 8 spokes survived as soil stains and imprints. Generally speaking the wheel was not in such a good condition as the eastern wheel and the tyre was much more worn. The upper nave-hoop was of iron, which had broken under pressure and weakness caused by corrosion. The wheel was of the same identical type as the eastern one, but the hub stains had gone where the wood had decayed more rapidly than the eastern hub. Tyre Fig. 241 & 246 Plates 72, 73, & 74 The iron tyre of the west wheel was perfectly circular and appears to belong to a wheel repaired by replacing a bronze nave-hoop with an iron one. In addition, the tyre was not new and was much more worn and weighed 1.5 kilos less than the eastern tyre. It was 2 ft 10 ins. in diameter; 0.865 metres, 1½ to 2 ins. wide allowing for corrosion; 3.5 to 5.2cms. and on average circa 0.85cm. thick. Unfortunately the tyre was cracked when force had to be used in London to remove the plaster of paris wheel mould, otherwise it was in tact. Two joining straps were apparent in the X-ray photographs, one was circa 2.5cm. wide and the other circa 5.1cm. The distance between the 2 pieces of metal joining was 6 ft 7 ins. 2 metres. Felloe Fig. 241 As much of the felloe of the west wheel remained as of the eastern one. Carbonised strips of it remained loosely attached to the interior of the metal. In addition there were wood imprints on the iron oxide inside the tyre in parts where carbonised wood did not occur. It is estimated the felloe was circa 2 ins. across; 4.9cm and 1½ to 2 ins. deep; 3.7 to 4.9cm. Spokes Fig. 241 Plates 72, 73, & 74 Only 8 spokes survived on the western wheel, due to the chemical effect of the decaying body liquids accelerating the decay of the wood, which prevented the gradual accumulation of wood stained soil in the interior of the wood as it decayed. The spacing of the spokes on the wheel were the same as on the eastern wheel, therefore the number of spokes on the wheel was 12. Their diameter and shape would have been the same for both wheels. Hub Plates 73 & 74 The hub of the western wheel was not so well preserved as one the eastern one probably due to the fairly rapid decaying of the wood in this area. Even so, the axle shaft hole remained intact for about an hour after excavation. It was 1½ ins. across; 3.7cms. and attempts were made to preserve it, but the hole fell in, due to the soil drying out, before this could be attempted. It was not possible to measure the length of the hub, but it would have been the same size as the one on the eastern wheel. Nave rings or Hoops Fig. 241 Plates 72, 73, & 74 The wheel probably had originally 2 bronze nave-hoops; one of these must have broken and was replaced by an iron one. This iron ring was attached to the upper side of the wheel and a perfectly preserved bronze nave-ring was resting on the bottom of the grave beneath. This hoop was covered, in patches, like the other two, with brilliant coating resembling a burnished gold, or gilded surface. Nave Hoop 3, Fig. 247 Above the centre of the wheel, still supported by the wood stained soil and gravel remains of the hub, was an iron nave-hoop, (1) 25/6/71, broken into 2 pieces by the pressure of soil and the decaying of the metal. It was roughly oval in shape in its surviving form and was 5+7/12 ins. long; 14.7cms., and 5+2/12 ins. wide; 13.15cms. It was 8-10mm across the bar in the present decayed form, and varied in thickness, due to corrosion, from 3-5mm, except where the hot, hammer welded, overlapping joints of the bar; circa 6cms. In length, on the circumference, thickened the section making it circa 5.5-7mm thick. Nave Hoop 4 Fig. 247 Nave-hoop 4 (5) 26/6/71, was beneath the remains of the hub on the west wheel on the floor of the grave. It, like the other 2 bronze nave hoops[s] exhibited a beautiful burnished gold appearance on excavation and was in perfect condition, except for a small dent which had distorted the rim slightly on one side. The diameter of the hoop was just over 5⅓ ins.; 13.8cms; the width across the hoop was 1.75cms and the average thickness 6mm. The Pole Shaft, Figs. 241 and 244 Plates 72, 73, & 74 One of the most remarkable features of the Garton Slack chariot burial was the survival of the pole-shaft, albeit broken into 2 pieces for burial. It is possible to estimate from the surviving imprints of the 2 wooden shafts, allowing for some contraction due to soil pressure; and the interior diameter of the pole-cap with its case and the other, which had broken off at the end was 1¾”, 4.5cms. They were both square in section and the shorter one was circa 4.4mm. thick and the longer one 5 to 6 mm. except where it tapered at the end. Both nails had been driven nearly through the wooden shaft. The cap was fairly intact except for one crack that was probably caused by soil pressure and decay of the metal rather than breakage during use. A crescent-shaped piece had rusted away on the lower part where it had rested on the soil. the outside diameter of the pole-shaft tapered slightly from one end where the pole entered the cap to the extreme end of the cap and pole, from 2¾ ins.; 7cms. To a little over 2½ ins.; 6.4cms. The total length of the cap was 2.95 ins.; 7.4cms. and the average thickness of 3-4cms. Towards the tapered end, 2cms. From it, was a rectangular perforation through the top and bottom of the cap. These holes were circa 2.1cms. long on the part of the cap that was uppermost in the grave and circa 1.4cms. wide. On the side resting on the grave bottom the perforation was 2.5cms. long and circa 1.5cms. wide. It would appear the hole was originally narrower on one side of the pole-cap than the other in antiquity. There is nothing to suggest the difference in size caused by corrosion. Obviously the holes were designed to accommodate a wooden peg, or a metal pin, which may have been part of the equipment securing the pole-shaft to the yoke and the ponies. See reconstruction Figs. 255 and 255B. The Whip or Stock Figs. 241, 252, 253, 2, and 254 A most interesting feature of the chariot burial was the sheet bronze casing of a wooden pommel located to the immediate north of the western wheel and 2 cylindrical bronze ferrules behind the posterior of the charioteer. The pommel had probably been constructed of cherry wood in the form of a stump T, encased in sheet bronze secured by 19 small bronze nails. This sheeting consisted of 3 linked bronze discs; the 2 side discs had 2 roughly trapezoidal strips of bronze attached to them in the same manner as the central disc. These end strips and discs had been hammered round a circular wooden handle of the pommel and nailed down. On excavation, the bronze surface of the pommel had some signs of the brilliant gilded appearance of the bronze nave rings. Just behind the charioteer’s pelvis were 2 think cylindrical ferrules of bronze, both of which tapered slightly from one end to the other. They each had been constructed of a single sheet of bronze bent over and riveted together with 2 small bronze rivets. Ferrule 1 had an interior diameter of 1.3cms. at the broader end and 1.1cms. at the narrowest point. Ferrule 2 was corroded and damaged but appeared to have a diameter of circa 1.2cms. at the wider end and circa 1.1cms. at the narrower. Ferrule 1 was located nearest the pommel, and Ferrule 2, which was in line with the former and just touching it, was the farther away of the two. Both ferrules were 2.5cms. in length. The nearer ferrule was 2 ft. 1½ ins; 0.64 metres away from the tip of the surviving wooden end of the pommel in a straight line and in line with the pommel’s axis; the second ferrule may have been dislodged slightly by the settling of the wooden structures in the grave. The pommel and the broader ferrule are in line, suggesting the pommel and the 2 ferrules were associated. Whilst no wood traces remained between the end of the decayed wooden pommel shaft and the ferrules, such traces are unlikely to have survived in this area, as some of the wooden spokes and part of the felloe had decayed without trace. It is thought the pommel and ferrules possibly belong to the same object; a whip, or stock; the ferrules being mounted on the shaft at the tip, farthest away from the pommel, possibly to bind on and secure the thongs of a whip. A suggested reconstruction is shown in Fig. 254. When located during excavation the pommel, and some of the shaft, including some soft wood that has not survived treatment, was 4 ins. long; 10cms. And where it was encased by bronze sheeting containing the wooded top, it was circa 2½ ins. wide, 6.5cms. The shaft had been circa 2.3cms. in diameter where it emerged from the bronze casing. This means the shaft of the whip, if that is what it was, tapered from the end of the pommel casing to the first ferrule from 2.3cms. to 1.3cms. in a length of 2 ft. 1½ ins.; 0.64 metres. Evaluation of the Chariot Burial The value of the routine excavation that produced the Garton Slack chariot, lies in the fact it was possible to excavate and record the burial under modern conditions and control, for the first time in the British Isles. Even so, some problems of chariot construction and harness usage were left unresolved. The Yoke No surviving evidence for a wooden yoke was apparent in the bottom of the grave as stain traces or imprints of wood and the yoke may have decayed away in the loose soil fallen from the wheels. It is peculiar that no traces of a yoke survived because the spokes of the wheels, felloes, hubs and pole-shaft stains were clearly visible as three-dimensional stains and imprints in the bottom of the grave. The answer may lie in one of the following suggestions:
Whilst amongst the first three suggestions may rest the answer to the problem of the missing yoke at Garton Slack, the fourth suggestion seems highly unlikely before the introduction to Europe of the horse-collar nearly a thousand years later. Fox suggests the Lyyn Cerrig chariot had traces and a swindle tree and the La Fondrolle had traces and maybe a swindle tree. In any case nearly all known Classical and Celtic illustrations of chariots shows a breast strap, body girth and high front pole level near or often above the shoulders of the horse. In most instances a yoke is clearly depicted, or indicated. Without doubt the chariot must have been harnessed to the ponies via a pole-shaft and a solid yoke; the latter resting on the shoulders of the ponies, and secured to them by a body girth behind the forelegs, and a breast band. Fig. 255. This would have prevented movement of the yoke thrust forward by the chariot, via the pole, when going downhill or pulling up. Attached to the yoke in the same manner and placed on the animal’s shoulders was a broad chest-band which enabled the ponies to haul the vehicle without strangulation as the weight of the chariot cannot have been excessive. In later times, under the Roman laws of Diocletion **, it was a serious offence for a horse, mule or pony to haul more than 500 kilogrammes [sic] because of the threat of strangulation and heart failure caused by the pressure of the breast-band which hindered breathing. This method of breast-band and body-girth harnessing of horses to chariots is clearly depicted on the grave-stele of Padua showing a Celtic chariot, and on numerous coins, this technique is shown also on the magnificent Alexander mosaic at Pompeii and other sources where this method of girth and breast-band harnessing is universal in nearly all illustrations. The Pole-shaft and Cap The main aspects of the pole-shaft have already been discussed in the detailed finds section. There can be no doubt the pole had been broken into two parts for the burial, probably only to fit into the grave, but possibly to symbolically ‘kill’ it as one of the chariot bits appear to have been. There can by no doubt the pole was capped by a cylindrical iron sheath secured to the pole by two heavy iron nails. A slot through the iron cap on the top and bottom is obviously intended to hold a rectangular sectioned bone, wood or metal swiven-pin [sic] which must have been part of the equipment to secure the pole to the yoke, most certainly via a thickened central yoke fitting and swiven-pin [sic]. As has already been stated, there can be no question that the pole-cap was attached to the front of the pole, as it was still in situ in the channel created by the pressure of the pole-shaft in the soft lining at the bottom of the grave. The similarity of the slots in the Garton Slack pole-cap to the so-called bronze case from the Charioteer’s Barrow at Arras and its dimensions suggest it too may well be the remains of a decorative pole-cap of which that from Garton Slack is a simpler iron example. ¹ unless the chariot-pole shaft was securely but flexibly linked to the ponies via the yoke it would have been impossible to control the vertical movements of the pole and provide adequate traction and braking ability. It is probable the pole-shaft was an integral part of the chariot chassis and probably extended under the floor to the back beam of the chariot. If the chariot body was four feet long, the total length of the chariot and pole would be in the region of ten to twelve feet; the pole extending for a distance of at least between seven to eight feet beyond the front of the chariot. Chassis and Chariot Body Figs. 255 and 255B The problem of the shape of the chariot car and the chassis may only be deduced from the few surviving illustrations of Celtic chariots in Europe; the best examples being depicted on the grave-stele from Padua and the bronze plaque from La Fandrolle, Alise-Staint Reine; other illustrations occurring on coins. Whereas the Roman chariots appear to have a curved and fairly high front and sides with an open back, the Celtic chariot, in all known illustrations, have arcaded sides or sideboard frames with gaps covered with basket work or other material. All of them are open back and front. Apparently there were seats on the side boards. The La Fandrolle chariot shown on a bronze plaque clearly shows the charioteer seated. It is remarkable that Celtic chariots are open fronted as this leaves the driver and passenger unprotected from the clods of earth and mud thrown back by the horses’ or ponies’ hooves, leaves no place on the front of the vehicle for a central terret or rein ring unless the terret was mounted on a bar curved across the coach from one side to another. This would also provide some protection for the driver or passenger if the slipped or fell forward whilst the chariot was in motion. This open front does explain how easily [!!!!] the warrior could run forward along the pole and jump down into battle as mentioned by Caesar. Obviously the driver could stand upright holding the reins as costermongers often do on their light carts today, sometimes at high speed. It would appear that Fox’s reconstruction of the coach-work and chassis of the Llyn Cerrig chariot was not far from the truth except that both the Garton Slack and other Arras Culture chariots may, or may not have had double arcaded sides. This arcading of the sides may be due to the need for an arm hollow support when riding seated, otherwise arcading does not seem to have any purpose. Tyres and Wheels The tyres at Garton Slack were intact, the dimensions of the felloes, hubs, spokes and nave-hoops are known, also the number of spokes per wheel. Whilst the diameter of the felloes are exactly known there are no indications of whether they were single piece felloes, or multiple ones. If the felloes had been single ones there would have been metal felloe joints on the wheels; there is no other way of joining them. In any case, single piece felloes would have been unsuitable on a wheel constructed of heat shrunk tyres as they would have defeated the object of the heat shrunk tyres wheels; the construction and locking together, as if in a vice, of the tyres, felloes, spokes and hubs into a strong rigid wheel it is highly probable the Garton Slack wheels were constructed in identically the same manner as the Holme Pierrepont wheel. The tyres would be heated to circa 600ºC., and then applied to the felloes via iron tongs and a wheel-frame jig. After being fitted correctly and rapidly to the assembled wheel they would have been immediately cooled by applying buckets of water. This would have caused the tyres to contract, prevented the iron from unduly burning the outer surface of the felloes and locked the wheel components tightly together. The techniques used to produce the Holme Pierrepont wheel and those of Garton Slack illustrate the high level of the wheelwright’s techniques used in the production of the British Iron Age chariot wheels. The techniques used are on a par with those of the wheelwrights today. Traces of the carbonised surface of the felloes caused by the hot iron survived inside the tyres. Similar fine carbonised wood survives on the inside of the two bronze nave hoops which indicate they were also heat shrunk onto the hubs. Axles and Linch-pins [sic] There was no evidence of linch-pins [sic] of any sort in the grave but these could have been made of hard wood. Wooden linch-pins would tent to wear the hubs and axle bar less than metal ones and would be cheaper to make and replace; they would also not survive in the grave. Whereas some linch-pins are made of metal, others were probably made entirely of wood; hence the apparent lack of linch-pins in many of the chariot graves. The only thing known about the axle is that it was not less than 1½ inches; 3.81cms. in diameter, as a hole of this diameter survived in the column of gravel and soil that were the stain traces of the hub of the west wheel, it had remained for an hour after excavation before collapsing. It is probable the axle-shaft was manufactured from fire-hardened oak as was probably the hub. Hubs and axles constructed of hardened wood must not be greased in any way as this collects dust and grit which in turn soon wears away both axle and hub. Therefore, both of the wearing surfaces were polished with bee’s wax before use and then afterwards allowed to polish the wearing surfaces entirely by friction. This method often produces loud squeaks but does appear to cause far less wear than lubricated hubs. Bridle-bits Two iron bridle-bits were found in the grave, one was broken in two and the other one was complete. Both bits were identical and were of the three linked type with rigid rein-rings welded onto the side mouth bits at an angle of 90°. The mouth pieces consisted of two side links joined together with a central link. The central hour-glass shaped link was bound round the centre by a narrow band which had been hammered round it. Bits of this type are rather fierce or cruel bits and enable the driver to control the horse under difficult conditions. Terrets Five terrets were located in the grave, all were of the D-shaped type and had the horse-shoe shaped iron-bar protruding into the bronze. The upper bronze portion had been cast around the iron part thereby making a very strong union which was essential in rein-rings. Originally the top of each terret had been capped by a coral, or imitation coral, bead which had been secured by a pin and rested in a cup-shaped hollow. It is not known for certain if all, or any, of the head mountings are of coral, but microscopic examination suggests that three are, but the fourth may by made of red chalk which has become leached through time. The full complement of terrets appears to be five. Four were in line with the supposed yoke with single strap union or slip buckle at each end. The fifth and larger terret appears to be out of line and above the rest. It is suggested this terret may have been mounted on a raised wooden column on the pole-shaft and that all four reins passed through this one from the other four terrets on the yoke and then to the driver. This would bring about side wear on the smaller terrets which appears to have occurred. One of the problems is the two central terrets appear to be too close together to permit two ponies to be harnessed to the yoke, but they may have been offset towards the centre of the yoke so the string of the reins ran back from the terrets, or the central terret, towards the driver in a straighter line than they would have been if terrets had been mounted an equal distance apart on either side of each pony’s back. This system is clearly exhibited on the Padua Stele and Classical illustrations of chariots. Whip Between the pelvis and the left heel of the charioteer were two cylindrical ferrules of bronze in line with the shaft of a sheet bronze pommel fastened by bronze nails to the remains of a wooden shaft that may have been made of wild cherry, or an allied wood. The pommel was located to the immediate north of the west wheel. This feature has been interpreted as a whip, the two ferrules as the end of the stock where the leather thongs would be attached. Whilst a whip cannot be definitely identified on the Padua grave stele, the La Fandrolle driver clearly had a whip. Whips were probably used not only as a goad, but flourished by exhibitionists as they rode along. Miscellaneous Harness Equipment Iron Objects Two iron rings, one 1.55ins; 3.93cms. in diameter, the other 2.25 ins; 5.71cms. in diameter were located in the grave. The smaller one came from 7 inches due north of the iron nave-hoop of the west wheel, but 1½ inches higher and may have come from the decayed coachwork which it is thought was inverted over the wheels and the charioteer. The larger ring came from between the left shoulder blade and close to the iron tyre of the west wheel and lay at the same level on top of the grave’s floor covering. It is unlikely these rings were part of the personal adornment of the charioteer, but were probably part of the harness fittings or mounted on the chariot coachwork. Bronze Objects Twp pieces of narrow and thin bronze sheet with bronze rivets attached to the remains of wood were in the loose soil located above the east wheel. These pieces are interpreted at parts of the inverted coachwork which as already has been suggested, was placed over the body, harness fittings and the wheels. The Crew Whereas the Garton Slack and Arras chariot graves contain only one skeleton the Danes’ Graves chariot had two. ² The question remains were persons buried singly at Arras and Garton the owner of the vehicle or their driver. It seems extremely unlikely a servant would have been buried with such rich grave furniture and the person in the grave must surely be the owner. Whereas at Danes’ Graves the grave probably contained the owner and driver which may have been the normal compliment. The Paduan grave-stele exhibits two people in the chariot, one the driver, the bronze plaque from La Fandrolle shows only the driver spinning along in a lively fashion. Chronology of the Chariot The chariot belongs in time to the Arras Culture burials of Hunmanby and Arras when the art of casting bronze onto iron in the manufacture of terrets and mirrors was in vogue. That the custom of chariot burial within a square-ditched enclosure is of a Continental, La Tene, origin and was introduced into East Yorkshire is beyond doubt; the local departure from the Continental norm being the practice of crouched, flexed or contracted burial. The difficulty of assigning an actual date for the Garton and Arras chariot burials lies in the fact that they are furnished with equipment developed in isolation from the Continental La Tene. This local flowering of a virile La Tene community has been rightly dubbed by Stead as the Arras Culture and because of its insular development and separation from the Continent it is difficult to assign a date at the present time to its products. Even so, the writer suggests a guess date in the latter part of the 3 rd century B.C. or early on the 2 nd Century B.C. as the likely date for the Garton Slack chariot. The Chariot – an attempted reconstruction Fig. 255 and 255B The reconstruction is based partly upon guesses as to the chariot’s construction from information gained from the Garton Slack chariot excavation and early sources such as the Padua stele³ and coins etc. In addition the excavator’s early years associated with horses, ponies, traps, chasses and single-pole farm wagons and allied harness was of some assistance. The non-survival of a yoke for one reason, or another, at Garton Slack does present a problem. There can be no doubt whatsoever a yoke must have been used to harness the ponies to the chariot, otherwise controlled and adequate travel would have been impossible. Fox, in his reconstruction of the Llyn Cerrig chariot suggests the horses were yoked to the chariot via a double swingle-tree and a wooden yoke secured to the pole by lashings and a swivel-pin. Without a horse-collar which was not used in Europe for more than a thousand years later than the chariot the swingel-tree system would have little tractive value. There is every possibility the pole was linked to the ponies via a strong wooden yoke with a thicker centre, possibly a knot, secured by a wooden, or metal swivel-pin fastened through the pole-cap. It is essential the swivel-pin fitted securely into the pole-cap, but the top and bottom of the swivel-pin slot would have a little larger hole to enable some vertical and horizontal play to take place when the chariot was moving over uneven ground, otherwise the coupling could have fractured as it would have been too rigid – see reconstruction. Harness It is thought the ponies must have been harnessed to the wooden yoke via a ‘belly band’ and a broad leather chest strap. Both of these would enable the ponies to haul the chariot and the belly-strap would assist breaking action by preventing forward movement of the yoke and pole. The chest-band would enable the ponies to haul a light load such as the chariot without strangulation. Some form of strap union, or buckle would be needed to keep the belly-strap taut. This buckle could have been made of hardened oak or less effectively a leather, self tightening strap system could have been used as belly-strap unions. It is suggested these were part of the head-gear. Coachwork There can be no doubt the Celtic chariot had an open front and arcaded sides. It is possible there was a curved bar across the front of the vehicle which could carry the large terret and provide protection to the passengers and the driver and prevent them falling when the chariot lurched. It is likely there was a seat on either side of the chariot. In the reconstruction the height of the sides was estimated, a maximum and minimum suggested height is shown. Swivel-pin It is likely some method was used to prevent the pin from partly jumping up and out of its socket during violent movements of the pole. The large pins of the type of the so-called linch pin from the King’s barrow, Arras may in fact be pole and yoke swivel-pins. These appear too thick to be inserted through the narrow wooden axle, even too thick for the pole-cap slot. It may well be the King’s barrow Arras type had some form of locking system on the bronze bottom of the pin which would enable it to be detached and joined on again after the upper part of the pin was passed through the socket hole of the pole-cap and yoke. This might explain their unusual shape. A wooden disc-clip at the lower side of the pole and between it and the end of the swivel-pin would have been just as effective. T.C.M. Brewster in this report often refers to numerated figures, or drawings. I can here, provide some of them [lacking numeration] thanks to Ian Stead who painstakingly scanned and emailed them to me. So large are the originals however, that it has been necessary to divide them into sections so that not even the smallest detail is omitted. They have then been reduced sufficiently to fit a web page, and their contrast enhanced to make them clearer. They are presented here as thumbnail images which will each open to a much larger version. What belongs where will be evident by viewing the thumbnails.
This manuscript copy is in the archive of the East Riding Archaeological Research Trust [ERART], to whom go my most sincere thanks for permission to reproduce it here in full. The Trust claims copyright of the report manuscript, as herein contained; and the Trustees were pleased to sanction its non-profit use for education and research purposes. Any further references to the report must be made via the East Riding Archaeological Research Trust, as must be any and all other copies made from this electronic reproduction. Please respect and protect our heritage by refraining from irresponsible plagiarism and by always seeking where possible, permission to reproduce any and all passages from other people’s hard work. All attempts to discover the definition of the item mentioned by Brewster, the RYMER, has failed completely. Enquiries have been made to modern day metal workers and engineers, to academics specialising in ancient metal working, dictionaries, and the Internet. All have failed. So, if there is anyone out there who can describe the function of a rymer, I would be very pleased indeed to hear from them. Chris Salter, currently excavating abroad has very kindly taken time to send me this about rymers and Brewster’s interpretation of nave hoop manufacture and those mysterious gold effect patches of patina described by Brewster. “Nave rings were made of iron and copper alloy. However the statement of them having been cast (which is the case for some nave loops) and them having been shaped is contradictory. If they are bronze, which is likely to have been case, then they would not have needed any further significant shaping. I can not find a reference to the tool mentioned [rymer] but I suspect it might refer to local name to a three point bending machine, as the term for a paddle fitting in a wooden groove of a (waterway) lock water control mechanism. The gold layer is likely to be due to either an interference colour due to a thin oxide layer or more likely the formation of a iron sulphide layer which can happen under certain soil conditions. ” A reappraisal of T.C.M. Brewster in some aspects of the manuscript report is necessary for various reasons, not least because of the advances that have been made during the 30 plus years since he made this fantastic discovery. This is not meant as any disrespect, on the contrary, it is hoped that by such continued discussion, any future discoveries can be looked at, talked about, and even variously interpreted in order that some-when the actual reality of these enigmatic graves and vehicles can be fully understood. Reappraisal of Brewster’s report is not a new feature of his work, indeed, as can be seen from Section 2, Dr. Ian Stead felt it necessary, indeed imperative to re-assess the report concerning the broken pole-shaft and the lack of axle theory propounded by Brewster. Stead, as can be seen, made an exceptional case for his own interpretation of the finds, that indeed, the second, lower section of Brewster’s pole-shaft was actually the missing axle! This then throws into doubt some other aspects of Brewster’s own interpretation, not least his ideas concerning any location of the swivel-pin and the method of construction relating to the wheel and axle union. Quite simply, if the so-called pole-cap was not at the end of the pole, then no swivel pin can have passed through it. Not only that, but it is now generally agreed that any use of a swivel-pin was very unlikely indeed, and any union between the yoke and pole-shaft being achieved by means of raw-hide binding, which provided all necessary movement and ‘give’ to the union, whilst at the same time providing the strength required of such a union. It should also be noted that nothing resembling a swivel-pin exists, as far as we currently know, in the archaeological record. The image is from Robert Hurford’s latest chariot reconstruction that of the Ferry Fryston [Ferry Bridge] chariot, 2004, in which he has clearly rethought some aspects of chariot construction when compared with that of the Wetwang chariot, 2001, [see Section 1] given the archaeology for the grave. However, as they would appear to be from distinct burial rituals, note that at Wetwang the wheels were laid flat, and the chariot dismantled, at Ferry Fryston, the wheels were upright, and the chariot possibly was intact. It has indeed been suggested to me by a reliable source that the results from Ferry Fryston indicate that the chariot in this case was “bodged up for burial”. I do not have enough knowledge or information to comment on this remark, but if true, then any reconstruction thereof must be seen in the same light, that while the reconstruction might be very faithful to the archaeology, the archaeology might be presenting something other than a working vehicle.
Arguably one of the more contentious aspects of Brewster’s report concerns the chariot’s wheel manufacture and construction. Robert Hurford, a familiar and highly respected figure in modern day reconstructions of chariots of several ages, particularly British Iron Age chariots, has been consulted by www.yorkshirehistory.com , and has provided much insight into this aspect of the report. My sincere thanks go to Robert for his enthusiastic and energetic contributions herein contained. His own web site can be viewed at: http://www.chariotmaker.co.uk/index.htm Brewster seems almost certain that the wheels had felloes of multiple sections, Robert Hurford however; preferring the epithet – wheel-rim - to felloe – dismisses this. When asked if he made plan drawings of his reconstructions, Robert said “No, I don't draw things very often, I hold them in my hand and copy them, or measure a few things and you go on shaping it till it looks right.” This hand-held, dare one say “touchy-feely” technique would it seems certain, have been the same in the Iron Age, no plans were made by the chariot builders, so they too must have done things by eye and by hand, as rare a skill then as it is now. Robert has prepared several papers about his involvement of and the reconstruction of Yorkshire’s Iron Age chariots, here with his generous permission, I quote from one of them: “ The dig [at Wetwang, 2001 RGH] yielded, as one might expect, the vehicle’s metal parts. These have their own mysteries about how they were used, and to some extent, I have to confess, they keep them still. The wheel size and weight could be deduced from the tyres and stock hoops (what archaeologists call nave bands), and with the aid of finds from other sites, like Newstead, Roxburghshire, and Glastonbury, Somerset, the form and even the style could confidently be inferred. The archaeologists’ meticulous work also gave some hints about the wooden parts: the dimensions and to some extent the shape of the axle, the pole and the yoke. The remainder of the vehicle was hardly more than hinted at, perhaps not even that to an untrained eye. None of the chariot excavations in Yorkshire gives us any real idea of what bodywork the vehicles had, so a lot of guesswork is necessary to make a working vehicle. Much later, when visiting a chariot excavation in progress, I was able to sense the thrill of the presence of the old object and feel how that actual near contact can stir the imagination…. “ The archaeological record seems to contain vehicles made in two basic ways: chariots of bent-wood, and wagons of joined timbers; others of more humble status are not preserved for us. Bentwood had to be part of the making of the Celtic chariot – the bows on the sides and the rims of the wheels, at least. There is a feeling about that the bentwood wheel construction of the ancient middle eastern chariots, such as the Egyptian ones, gave way to a slightly heavier construction involving a shrunk-on iron tyre, with larger numbers of spokes mortised into the stocks. This seems at least by some readings to progress northward, where the climate happens to be colder and often wetter. The wetter environment would not help rawhide and bentwood construction thrive, as each of these materials is very apt to fail in the wet. There are rock drawings, which one has to interpret as chariots, from various places, notably Sweden. It struck me, newly thinking in terms of bentwood, that whatever arguable features these rock drawings show, their most evident characteristic is that they are of bentwood construction. The proportion of the various parts of a vehicle to one another is self-evidently important. The Yorkshire chariots have heavy axles which do not seem to be quite in proportion with a light bentwood vehicle – they would carry something more heavily made. Maybe, these Celtic chariot builders use techniques more akin to the earlier wagon builders of the central Europe, Hallstatt and the like. The few well-preserved wheels from peat bogs of iron age make are, however, surprisingly light, and might seem to be a little unsuited to the heaviness of axle that the Wetwang grave had indicated. ” [In Search of Lost Crafts, by Robert Hurford] Similarly, Robert described further his investigation into chariot building represented here with a particular emphasis on the wheels thereof as discovered at Ferry Fryston. “ The vehicles found in Yorkshire burials have some features in common with those from other west European regions. These include the construction of the wheels and the types of linch pin, both found in exactly the same style in France, for example. Wheels are bound by iron tyres welded into a ring, and the wooden rim bent into a ring, a characteristic form of construction. The use of an iron tyre seems to be a feature of Celtic culture, apparently from its beginning, and I wonder incidentally whether it is an aspect of metal working which may have helped form the Celts into what they were. The measured sizes of the vehicles are remarkably uniform. The reconstruction of these vehicles necessarily draws on representations from several kinds of source. The tribe known as the Venetii who gave their name to Venice and inhabited the region around it have left stone carvings of their chariots, coins depicting chariots have been found in other areas. Some finds have been made from waterlogged sites of examples of yokes and wheels. A very small number of actual ancient chariots, notably those of Tutankhamen, have survived, though none of this kind. These may help with some aspects, such as joinery techniques or fastening methods, and the realization comes from them [and from some textual sources] that these vehicles were full of ingenuity and sophistication, which may inform an approach to reconstruction. … “In making a chariot which follows the Celtic evidence, construction techniques need to follow the technology available to the original makers, we are told that the wood plane was not invented, so areas of the reconstruction have been given a finish showing the ripples of an adze. They must have had abrasives, and shaves or something akin to a drawknife. Gouges and chisels, as well as boring bits have been found. It is evident that the craftsmen of that culture revelled in the use of the lathe, so the reconstruction can use all these techniques. Iron fastenings are virtually absent from English chariots found in excavations, so all the timber parts are held together by lashings which would possibly have been rawhide in reality, our model actually uses tanned goat-hide since rawhide would shrink too much in a museum case and cowhide would be need to be greatly thinned for the model. The stock hoops and decorative bronze parts are attached in the model as in the original by bronze nails. Other materials used in the model follow those identified in the excavation. Ash is the wood used for all wooden parts except the panels of the body **for which oak, which cleaves readily was thought preferable. All the bronze parts are solid cast silica bronze [the terrets were in reality hollow filled structures, and the rings associated with the linch pins were iron, thinly coated with bronze, the stock hoops were iron rings with bronze sheet over them]. [Robert Hurford April 4th 2006] ** My emphasis - Further confirmation of the timber used predominantly in the construction of these vehicles. RGH In furtherance to the methodology used by Robert Hurford to recreate these vehicles, he offers this as proof of one-piece felloes, or wheel-rims: “ It is reasonable to take the normal depth of a rim as being about 2'', this can be proven from the lengths of tyre nails in lots of places, Hallstatt etc, [see Chris Pare's book, the nails sometimes pass through the rim and are clenched over, so you can see how deep the rim was] and then look at the tenons [what most wheelwrights call tongues or tangs, it's the tenon into the rim] of the spokes from Glastonbury, you see they are about an inch long. These tenons are also sloped on their sides. The attached picture is a full size copy I made of one of them. When one has repaired a lot of wheels with steam bent rims it is apparent that the rim frequently collapses around the hole the tenon passes through, due to the forces due to water absorption. [The construction with ''half rims'', i.e. two pieces, is quite common, particularly in imported hickory wheels from the USA]. If that hole only enters the rim for half its depth, the problem is lessened, but the Victorian period and later wheels have holes right through, and suffer the collapsing. The assembly of these [Iron Age] rims is also be made easier by the sides of the tenons being sloped, you don't need to ply the spokes across as far to get them into the rim. So, the iron age wrights, making the mortice not fully piercing the rim, and lessening its width because its sides slope, had thought this out more carefully than the Victorian wheelwrights who made wheels with bent rims So, I can see from the Glastonbury spokes, without having any rims, that they were made for, and [because there is crushing where they have been driven in] actually fitted to, bent rims. ” [Unfinished paper received via Email, by Robert Hurford, June 2006] Robert used for his inspiration the La Tene wheels described by, in one case by Bullied and Gray's 1911 description of Glastonbury Lake Village. Another illustrated by Stuart Piggott 'Ancient Europe' 1965 Edinburgh, illustration number 137, “The Constructional details of wooden chariot-wheel, with single piece felloe, iron tyre, …. First century A.D., from Newstead, in Scotland.”
Brewster however takes considerable inspiration for his description of the Garton Slack chariot wheels from that discovered at Holme Pirrepoint, in Nottinghamshire, and makes several references to it. It must however be pointed out that Tony Brewster did not have the benefit of the relative plethora of chariots which to him were as yet undiscovered, those found by Stead and Dent for example, to draw upon. In consultation with Robert Hurford, this wheel he told me by Email: “The Holme Pierrepoint wheel, from memory, was found in a river bed, dated, possibly to 2nd century BC, which I think may be too early, was drawn....nicely, and then put back into the river, it is illustrated in Piggott……. . It is a bilaterally symmetrical wheel, with rather modern looking segmented dowelled felloes, tapered spokes and a shrunk-on tyre. I think of the style of it as Roman rather than what I call Celtic....which is the La Tene style stock.” [My emphasis RGH] Another point of contention is Brewster’s suggestion that the ends of the axles which passed through the wheel hubs had been “The only thing known about the axle is that it was not less than 1½ inches; 3.81cms. in diameter, as a hole of this diameter survived in the column of gravel and soil that were the stain traces of the hub of the west wheel, it had remained for an hour after excavation before collapsing. It is probable the axle-shaft was manufactured from fire-hardened oak as was probably the hub. Hubs and axles constructed of hardened wood must not be greased in any way as this collects dust and grit which in turn soon wears away both axle and hub. Therefore, both of the wearing surfaces were polished with bee’s wax before use and then afterwards allowed to polish the wearing surfaces entirely by friction. This method often produces loud squeaks but does appear to cause far less wear than lubricated hubs.” [T.C.M. Brewster, see above] Upon reading this, Robert Hurford was very far from complimentary about the idea/suggestion/theory/hypothesis that such fragile sections of the wheel-axle assembly could or would have survived such treatment, telling me by Email: “…. thinking about this charring business, the Glastonbury stock is a beautiful, exquisitely made thing, at its thinnest it is about 10mm thick in section. If you throw a bit of wood in a fire it will crack and distort and the surface will char, the double mortises in the stock would be all made a nonsense. ………. They were made with great care as objects of display,…. [these chariots] wouldn't have worked if its parts had been chucked in a fire before they were assembled (or after). I feel strongly about it!” So refreshing I feel to see such passion about these ancient artefacts. The idea that such unions were made more tough by charring them has also been discounted, in the Ferry Fryston [Bridge] chariot by Dr. Sonia O’Connor of Bradford University, who in an email response to Mr. Hurford concerning this point, replied: “I saw no evidence of fire-hardening. This would have produced charred material at the junction of the axle and hub and this should have been indicated at least by an arc of black material in the soil stain formed by the wood. Furthermore, I did find, as you know, traces of preserved wood in situ at the axle/hub junction in the deposits lifted with one of the nave hoops. This was not charred. As the iron hoop corroded, corrosion in solution will have seeped out into the wood and then solidified, preserving the structure of the wood immediately up against the iron. This is a common occurrence and we term such survivals MPO – mineral preserved organic remains. The movement of the seepage may not be that fast so the wood may decay before the corrosion front arrives and all we get deeper into the wood is staining but no recognisable structure. This was the case with wood around the corroding nave hoops, but in the case above something had prevented the wood at the junction of the hub and axle from entirely rotting. This might have been something with biocidal properties – fungi and bacteria are the main destroyers of buried wood - but it is possible that all it required was something hydrophobic, like a grease or wax etc., but which was itself not particularly susceptible to bio-deterioration. This would have precluded water and oxygen from the wood and both fungi and bacteria need an aqueous medium to function, even though some do not need oxygen. The exact mechanism of preservation will not be understood unless we can do microscopy and analysis of the surviving fragments but, as I said, there is definitely no evidence that the pieces survived because of charring .”
I want to offer my most sincere thanks to the Hull and East Riding Museum , Hull Museums, High Street, Hull for allowing http://www.yorkshirehistory.com to display these modern photographic images of the small finds from the Garton Slack chariot grave. The Museum, Paula Gentil Keeper of Archaeology and Martin Foreman Assistant Keeper of Archaeology in particular have been of sterling assistance in this regard. Presented here are but six of a total collection of 50 images some depicting the same object from various aspects. The entire set can be viewed at the Gallery at: http://yorkshirehistory.com/Gallery/albums.php Copyright for all these images is retained by the Museum, and any request for their reproduction must be made through them via the provided link please. With these images comes the conclusion of what can be said concerning this report, this site has perhaps for the first time ever, brought together the actual report, the associated drawings, modern photographs, overall photographs, and last but by no means least, some alternative interpretations to some of Tony Brewster’s own. I think I can say that this site offers a unique insight into this amazing archaeological discovery.
This has been a quite astonishing few weeks; so much more material has flowed into the site than I ever imagined when first the possibility of presenting Tony Brewster’s report on his 1971 Garton Slack chariot became a possibility. I have decided therefore to include a local ‘acknowledgments’ for this section. A copy of this will also be added to the list at the close of Section 3. I think I must however state that without the intervention of Peter Shorer F.I.I.C., who after seeing the main article, decided to send me some of his own photographs of the site inspired me to further investigation; and therefore also to the following go my most sincere thanks for their generous assistance and forbearance: Very special thanks to Terry Manby, East Riding Archaeological Research Trust Dr. John Dent. Principal Officer (Archaeology and Countryside), Planning and Economic Development, Scottish Borders Council. Dr. Ian Stead, currently retired, but formerly Deputy Keeper of the Department of Prehistoric and Romano-British Antiquities at the British Museum. Robert Hurford, chariot maker; http://www.chariotmaker.co.uk/index.htm Sonia O'Connor ; University of Bradford Chris Salter, Oxford Materials Characterisation Service, & Electron Microscopy Research Support Group. Hull and East Riding Museum, Hull Museums, High Street, Hull, Paula Gentil Keeper of Archaeology and Martin Foreman Assistant Keeper of Archaeology in particular National Monuments Record, Swindon; Laura Butler in particular. Richard Hayton © 2006
| |
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
Designed by Richard Hayton 2006 |
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.gif)
